EVIDENCE BASED FOOD CHART

Foods ranked by health outcome data

This chart presents the best and worst choices available when building a diet for long-term health. The chart is based on data from large cohort studies, dietary trials, substitution research and public-health evidence. Sources are found at the bottom of this page.

🌟 Build your diet around these 🌱 Helpful additions ⚖️ Context-dependent ⚠️ Better replaced 🚨 Best limited or avoided
Rank Food / category Optimal health summary Evidence quality
1 🫘 Legumes One of the strongest foundation foods: beans, lentils, chickpeas and peas provide fibre, plant protein, minerals and very favourable replacement effects when used instead of meat or refined starch. Very strong for dietary pattern and substitution
Supported by plant-forward cohorts, Mediterranean diet evidence, Adventist-style cohorts and cardiometabolic research.
2 🌾 Whole grains Consistently linked with lower all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and some cancer outcomes. A major upgrade over refined grains. Very strong
NHS, HPFS, EPIC, NIH-AARP, GBD-style analyses and meta-analyses.
3 🥦 Vegetables Core protective foods, especially leafy greens, cruciferous vegetables and colourful non-starchy vegetables. Strongly suited to everyday intake. Very strong
Repeated across major cohorts, meta-analyses and public-health evidence.
4 🥜 Nuts and seeds Dense in unsaturated fats, fibre and minerals. Strongly associated with lower mortality and cardiovascular risk, especially when replacing processed snacks. Very strong
Supported by NHS, HPFS and global diet-risk analyses.
5 🍎 Whole fruit A strong everyday choice, especially when replacing sweets, desserts or refined snacks. Whole fruit is very different from fruit juice. Strong
Large cohort evidence links higher intake with lower cardiovascular disease and mortality.
6 🧆 Soy foods Traditional soy foods such as tofu, tempeh, edamame and unsweetened soy milk are especially favourable when replacing red meat, processed meat or high-saturated-fat animal foods. Moderate to strong
Supported by cohort evidence on tofu/isoflavones, type 2 diabetes meta-analyses, plant-protein replacement studies and mortality analyses.
7 🫒 Olive oil / unsaturated plant oils A better default fat source than butter, lard, ghee or cream. Benefits are strongest when unsaturated plant oils replace saturated animal fats. Strong
NHS/HPFS substitution analyses, Mediterranean diet evidence and cardiometabolic research.
8 🇬🇷 Mediterranean / whole-food plant-forward pattern A diet pattern rich in legumes, whole grains, vegetables, fruit, nuts, olive oil and optional fish is one of the most consistently supported approaches for long-term health. Very strong for a dietary pattern
Supported by cohort evidence, PREDIMED-style trial evidence and repeated meta-analyses.
9 🍄 Mushrooms A useful whole-food addition that can help replace meat in meals while adding fibre-like compounds, micronutrients and savoury flavour with very low energy density. Moderate
Promising cohort and mechanistic evidence, but not as strong as legumes, whole grains or nuts.
10 🌿 Herbs and spices Helpful for adding flavour without relying on excess salt, sugar or saturated fat. Some individual herbs and spices have promising biomarker evidence. Moderate to limited
Useful as part of a healthy pattern, but less direct long-term outcome evidence than major food groups.
11 ☕ Coffee Generally associated with lower all-cause mortality in large cohorts. Best treated as favourable when consumed without lots of sugar, syrup or cream. Strong observational
Supported by NHS, HPFS, UK Biobank, EPIC and NIH-AARP-type cohorts.
12 🍵 Tea Usually associated with slightly better cardiometabolic outcomes, especially when replacing sugary drinks or alcohol. Moderate
Generally favourable, but less definitive than whole grains, legumes or nuts.
13 🐟 Oily fish Can be a favourable option, especially in place of red or processed meat. Fish as food looks stronger than fish-oil supplements. Moderate to strong
Supported by cohort evidence for heart outcomes, though supplement trials are mixed.
14 🥣 Plain yoghurt / fermented dairy Often performs better than sugary dairy desserts, butter or cream. Plain fermented dairy may be neutral to modestly favourable for diabetes and cardiometabolic outcomes. Moderate
Best evidence is for plain yoghurt rather than sweetened dessert-style products.
15 🥔 Plain potatoes Reasonable as a whole-food starch, especially boiled or baked and eaten with beans, vegetables or salads. Not as optimal as whole grains or legumes. Moderate
Plain potatoes look far less concerning than fried potatoes, but replacement with whole grains often looks better.
16 🧀 Cheese Often surprisingly neutral in cohorts, but not a foundation food for optimal health. Context matters: better than processed meat, less ideal than legumes, nuts or soy. Moderate and mixed
Possible dairy-matrix effects, but still a source of saturated fat, salt and calories.
17 🥛 Total dairy Too broad to label simply good or bad. Fermented and unsweetened dairy often looks better; butter, cream and sweetened dairy desserts look worse. Moderate and mixed
Subtype and replacement food matter heavily.
18 🥚 Eggs Often neutral at moderate intake in cardiovascular studies, but replacement analyses suggest better outcomes when eggs are swapped for plant proteins or lower-cholesterol options. Moderate and mixed
Not a disaster food, but not as optimal as legumes, soy, nuts or whole grains.
19 🍗 Poultry Usually better than processed or red meat, but less optimal than plant proteins. Fried, heavily browned or processed poultry adds concerns around oxidised cholesterol and heat-formed compounds. Moderate and context-dependent
Human cohort evidence is often neutral, but replacement studies generally favour plant proteins over animal proteins.
20 🧈 Saturated fat-rich foods Best understood through replacement. Swapping saturated-fat-rich foods for unsaturated plant fats is consistently more favourable than replacing them with refined carbs. Moderate to strong
Substitution evidence is strongest.
21 🍞 Refined grains Less optimal than whole grains and often linked with poorer diabetes and weight outcomes. White bread, refined cereals and pastries are best reduced. Moderate to strong
Strongest evidence comes from replacing refined grains with whole grains.
22 🧃 Fruit juice Better than sugary fizzy drinks in some ways, but much worse than whole fruit because it delivers sugar quickly with less fibre and satiety. Moderate
Best treated as occasional, not as a fruit replacement.
23 🍬 Added sugar Adds calories and sweetness while displacing better foods. Most concerning when consumed through drinks, desserts, sweets and ultra-processed foods. Strong
Especially strong for sugar-sweetened beverages and cardiometabolic outcomes.
24 🧈 Butter, lard, ghee, cream Less optimal default fats than olive oil, rapeseed oil, nuts, seeds or avocado. Generally worse in substitution analyses than unsaturated plant fats. Moderate to strong
The replacement food matters greatly.
25 🥩 Total meat Too broad to condemn equally, but as a category it is generally less optimal than legumes, soy, nuts and whole grains because it includes red and processed meat. Moderate
Depends heavily on meat type, amount, cooking method and replacement food.
26 🥩 Unprocessed red meat Associated with higher mortality, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular risk in many cohorts. Less harmful than processed meat, but not an optimal everyday protein source. Moderate
Risk depends on dose, cooking method and what replaces it.
27 🍷 Alcohol For optimal health, alcohol is best limited or avoided. Cancer risk rises with intake, and older claims of heart benefit are increasingly questioned because of confounding. Strong for harm
Especially strong for cancer risk and high intake; low intake remains debated but is not necessary for health.
28 🧂 High salt / sodium High sodium intake is strongly linked with higher blood pressure, which increases risk of stroke and cardiovascular disease. Most excess sodium comes from processed and restaurant foods. Very strong for blood pressure
Strong population-level evidence for cardiovascular risk.
29 🍟 French fries / chips Far less optimal than plain potatoes. Frequent intake adds refined starch, frying oils, salt and energy density in a form strongly linked with poor metabolic outcomes. Moderate to strong
Especially concerning with frequent intake and when replacing healthier starches.
30 🥤 Sugar-sweetened beverages One of the clearest avoid categories. Liquid sugar is linked with weight gain, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and higher mortality. Very strong observational
Consistent across large cohorts and systematic reviews.
31 🍩 Ultra-processed foods Associated with higher all-cause mortality, obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and some cancers. Not every UPF is equal, but the overall pattern is consistently negative. Strong but broad
Large cohorts and umbrella reviews support harm, though the category is heterogeneous.
32 🥓 Processed meat Probably the least optimal major food category. Linked with colorectal cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes and mortality. Very strong for harm
Consistent across NHS/HPFS, NIH-AARP and cancer-agency evidence.

This chart is designed for general education, not personalised medical advice. The ranking is based on optimal long-term dietary patterns, not simply whether a food is “safe.” In nutrition, the replacement food matters: swapping bacon for beans is very different from swapping bacon for white bread.

Sources & further reading

Afshin A, Sur PJ, Fay KA, et al. Health effects of dietary risks in 195 countries, 1990–2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. The Lancet, 2019.
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Bao Y, Han J, Hu FB, et al. Association of nut consumption with total and cause-specific mortality. New England Journal of Medicine, 2013.
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Aune D, Keum N, Giovannucci E, et al. Whole grain consumption and risk of cardiovascular disease, cancer, and all-cause and cause-specific mortality. BMJ, 2016.
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Wang X, Ouyang Y, Liu J, et al. Fruit and vegetable consumption and mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. BMJ, 2014.
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Aune D, Giovannucci E, Boffetta P, et al. Fruit and vegetable intake and the risk of cardiovascular disease, total cancer and all-cause mortality. International Journal of Epidemiology, 2017.
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Estruch R, Ros E, Salas-Salvadó J, et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with a Mediterranean diet supplemented with extra-virgin olive oil or nuts. New England Journal of Medicine, 2018 republication.
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Guasch-Ferré M, Li Y, Willett WC, et al. Consumption of olive oil and risk of total and cause-specific mortality among U.S. adults. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 2022.
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Appel LJ, Moore TJ, Obarzanek E, et al. A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. New England Journal of Medicine, 1997.
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Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, et al. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension diet. New England Journal of Medicine, 2001.
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Satija A, Bhupathiraju SN, Spiegelman D, et al. Healthful and unhealthful plant-based diets and the risk of coronary heart disease in U.S. adults. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 2017.
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Song M, Fung TT, Hu FB, et al. Association of animal and plant protein intake with all-cause and cause-specific mortality. JAMA Internal Medicine, 2016.
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Glenn AJ, Viguiliouk E, Seider M, et al. Relation of vegetarian dietary patterns with major cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Nutrition, 2019.
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Ma L, Liu G, Ding M, et al. Isoflavone intake and the risk of coronary heart disease in U.S. men and women. Circulation, 2020.
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Li N, et al. Intake of soy, soy isoflavones and soy protein and risk of type 2 diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrition Reviews, 2020.
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Zhong VW, Van Horn L, Cornelis MC, et al. Associations of dietary cholesterol or egg consumption with incident cardiovascular disease and mortality. JAMA, 2019.
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Drouin-Chartier JP, Chen S, Li Y, et al. Egg consumption and risk of cardiovascular disease: three large prospective US cohort studies, systematic review, and updated meta-analysis. BMJ, 2020.
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Zheng J, Huang T, Yu Y, et al. Egg consumption and risk of cardiovascular diseases and diabetes: a meta-analysis. Atherosclerosis, 2020.
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Zhang Y, Chen J, Qiu J, et al. Intakes of fish and polyunsaturated fatty acids and mild-to-severe cognitive impairment risks: a dose-response meta-analysis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2016.
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Zhang H, Greenwood DC, Risch HA, et al. Meat consumption and risk of incident dementia: cohort study of 493,888 UK Biobank participants. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2021.
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Javanshiri K, Waldo ML, Friberg N, et al. Atherosclerosis, hypertension, and diabetes in Alzheimer’s disease, vascular dementia, and mixed dementia: prevalence and presentation. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 2018.
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Malik VS, Li Y, Pan A, et al. Long-term consumption of sugar-sweetened and artificially sweetened beverages and risk of mortality in U.S. adults. Circulation, 2019.
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Pan A, Sun Q, Bernstein AM, et al. Red meat consumption and mortality: results from two prospective cohort studies. Archives of Internal Medicine, 2012.
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International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat. World Health Organization / IARC, 2015.
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Fang Z, Rossato SL, Hang D, et al. Association of ultra-processed food consumption with all-cause and cause-specific mortality. BMJ, 2024.
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Lane MM, Gamage E, Du S, et al. Ultra-processed food exposure and adverse health outcomes: umbrella review of epidemiological meta-analyses. BMJ, 2024.
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Ding M, Satija A, Bhupathiraju SN, et al. Association of coffee consumption with total and cause-specific mortality in three large prospective cohorts. Circulation, 2015.
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Ding M, Li J, Qi L, et al. Associations of dairy intake with risk of mortality in women and men: three prospective cohort studies. BMJ, 2019.
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Guo J, Astrup A, Lovegrove JA, et al. Milk and dairy consumption and risk of cardiovascular diseases and all-cause mortality: dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. European Journal of Epidemiology, 2017.
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Mousavi SM, et al. Total and specific potato intake and risk of type 2 diabetes: results from three US cohort studies and a substitution meta-analysis. BMJ, 2025.
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World Health Organization. Alcohol and health. WHO fact sheet.
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World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research. Diet, Nutrition, Physical Activity and Cancer: a Global Perspective. Continuous Update Project Expert Report.
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